1,500 years in the making

The History of Chess

How a game invented to train Gupta-era soldiers became the most played strategy game on Earth.

~600 CEChaturangaBorn in India~700sShatranjRefined in Persia~1000Reaches EuropeVia the Islamic world1475The “Mad Queen”Modern rules emerge1886First World titleSteinitz becomes champion1972Match of the CenturyFischer defeats Spassky1997Deep BlueA computer beats a championTodayOnline boomMillions play every day

A quick map of the highlights above — the full story is below.

From war game to world game

Chess is roughly a millennium and a half old, and in that time it has crossed empires, survived religious bans, been redesigned twice, and outlived the very civilizations that first played it. What follows is the long version of how sixty-four squares became one of the most enduring inventions in human history.

India, around the 6th century — Chaturanga

The earliest ancestor most historians agree on is chaturanga, played in Gupta-era India. Its name means “four divisions [of the military]” — infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry — which became, in time, the pawn, knight, bishop, and rook. The game modeled an army protecting its king, and that basic framing has never really changed: every version of chess since has been, at heart, a war game played on a grid.

Persia and the Islamic Golden Age — Shatranj

Chaturanga crossed into Persia by the 600s, where it became shatranj. The Arabic word for the king in check, “shah,” and the phrase for checkmate, “shah mat” (“the king is helpless/dead”), both survive almost unchanged in the modern word “checkmate.” After the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, shatranj spread across the Middle East, North Africa, and eventually Muslim Spain. Islamic scholars took the game seriously as an intellectual pursuit: they wrote the first known chess literature, composed early puzzle collections (called mansubat), and studied openings systematically — centuries before Europe did the same.

Reaching Europe — by land and by sea

Chess entered Europe by at least two routes: through Muslim-controlled Spain and Sicily, and via Byzantine trade contacts with Russia and the Balkans. By the year 1000, it was known from Spain to Scandinavia. Medieval European chess kept shatranj's slow pieces — the piece we now call the queen (“fers”/“ferz”) could only move one square diagonally, and the bishop (“alfil”) leapt exactly two squares. Games were correspondingly slow, and it shows in the surviving medieval chess manuscripts, which read more like devotional or moral texts than sport.

1475 — the “Mad Queen” reform

Modern chess was essentially invented in southern Europe — Spain and Italy — in the final decades of the 15th century. In a single set of changes, the queen went from the weakest piece on the board to the strongest, gaining the rook's straight lines and the bishop's diagonals combined; the bishop was given its full diagonal range; and pawns won the option of a two-square first move (with en passant following soon after). Contemporaries nicknamed the new game “Queen's chess” or, less flatteringly, “mad queen chess” — because a piece with that much power on the board felt genuinely radical. This is, essentially, the chess still played today.

The Romantic Era — sacrifice over safety

From the 1700s through the mid-1800s, chess theory was dominated by attack for its own sake. François-André Danican Philidor argued in 1749 that “pawns are the soul of chess,” a genuinely modern idea centuries ahead of its time — but the era's signature games belonged to reckless brilliance, not structure. The peak is Adolf Anderssen's 1851 Immortal Game and 1852 Evergreen Game, in which he sacrificed enormous material — queen, both rooks, a bishop — to deliver forced mates. American Paul Morphy, active for barely two competitive years (1857–59) before retiring at 22, is still considered the purest attacking talent the Romantic era produced.

1886 — the first official World Championship

Organized, high-stakes competition arrived with London 1851, the first true international tournament, won by Adolf Anderssen. But it was Wilhelm Steinitz — who defeated Johannes Zukertort in a match across New York, St. Louis, and New Orleans in 1886 — who became recognized as the first official World Champion. Steinitz's real legacy wasn't the title itself but a theory: he argued chess could be won through the patient accumulation of small, provable advantages — better pawn structure, safer king position, superior piece activity — rather than through romantic combination-hunting. This “positional” or “scientific” school still underpins how the game is taught.

The Soviet School and the Hypermoderns

The early 20th century brought “hypermodernism” — Richard Réti, Aron Nimzowitsch, and others argued that controlling the center didn't require occupying it with pawns; pieces could pressure it from a distance instead. After the 1917 revolution, the Soviet Union treated chess as a matter of state prestige, funding schools, coaches, and a professional circuit unmatched anywhere else. From 1948 (Mikhail Botvinnik) until 1972, every World Champion but one was Soviet — a run including Tal, Petrosian, and Spassky that produced some of the deepest theoretical work in the game's history.

1972 — the Match of the Century

That Soviet run was broken by an American. Bobby Fischer's 1972 World Championship match against Boris Spassky in Reykjavík, Iceland, played out as a genuine Cold War proxy battle, covered by front-page news around the world. Fischer's dominance — including a run of Candidates wins by lopsided 6–0 scores — and his fierce perfectionism about tournament conditions made the match as much a cultural event as a sporting one. He won, then largely withdrew from competitive chess for two decades.

1997 — the machines arrive

Garry Kasparov, World Champion from 1985 and arguably the strongest player of the 20th century, lost a six-game match to IBM's Deep Blue supercomputer in 1997 — the first time a reigning champion had been beaten by a machine under tournament conditions. It reset the sport's relationship with computers: engines went from curiosities to essential training tools within a decade, and by the 2010s no human could beat the strongest engines under any conditions at all.

Chess today — the online era

In 2017, Google DeepMind's AlphaZero learned chess from scratch through self-play in under a day and then defeated the world's strongest conventional engine — playing with a strikingly aggressive, sacrificial style that surprised grandmasters. Combined with the rise of online platforms, livestreamed tournaments, and a pandemic-era surge in casual play (accelerated further by cultural moments like The Queen's Gambit), chess is now played more often, by more people, than at any point in its 1,500-year history — a war game from Gupta India still being played out, one square at a time, on phones around the world.

The starting position — the same 32 pieces, the same 64 squares, essentially unchanged since 1475.